4DLidarOpen is a new open dataset providing synchronized 4D FMCW Lidar velocity measurements, multi-Lidar and camera data, and 3D bounding-box annotations with track IDs to support benchmarks on 3D detection, BEV segmentation, flow prediction, and motion forecasting.
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VADv2: End-to-End Vectorized Autonomous Driving via Probabilistic Planning
Canonical reference. 90% of citing Pith papers cite this work as background.
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Pith papers citing it
Background
90% of classified citations
abstract
Learning a human-like driving policy from large-scale driving demonstrations is promising, but the uncertainty and non-deterministic nature of planning make it challenging. Existing learning-based planning methods follow a deterministic paradigm to directly regress the action, failing to cope with the uncertainty problem. In this work, we propose a probabilistic planning model for end-to-end autonomous driving, termed VADv2. We resort to a probabilistic field function to model the mapping from the action space to the probabilistic distribution. Since the planning action space is a high-dimensional continuous spatiotemporal space and hard to tackle, we first discretize the planning action space to a large planning vocabulary and then tokenize the planning vocabulary into planning tokens. Planning tokens interact with scene tokens and output the probabilistic distribution of action. Mass driving demonstrations are leveraged to supervise the distribution. VADv2 achieves state-of-the-art closed-loop performance on the CARLA Town05 benchmark, significantly outperforming existing methods, and also leads the recent Bench2Drive benchmark. We further provide comprehensive evaluations on NAVSIM and a large-scale 3DGS-based benchmark, demonstrating its effectiveness in real-world applications. Code is available at https://github.com/hustvl/VAD.
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representative citing papers
SCORP delivers 10-28% gains in safety and 2-7% in efficiency metrics on WOMD by using dual-path scene conditioning in diffusion planning plus variance-gated group-relative policy optimization for closed-loop stability.
PaIR-Drive runs IL and RL in parallel branches with a tree-structured sampler to reach 91.2 PDMS and 87.9 EPDMS on NAVSIM benchmarks while outperforming sequential RL fine-tuning and correcting some human errors.
AlphaDrive uses GRPO-based RL rewards and two-stage SFT+RL training on VLMs to improve autonomous driving planning performance and efficiency while producing emergent multimodal capabilities.
BeyondDrive augments imitation learning with synthesized safety-critical negative trajectories and a repulsive loss to improve safety in autonomous driving, reporting 89.7 PDMS on NAVSIMv1 and generalization to other models.
CLOVER is a closed-loop generator-scorer framework that expands proposal coverage with pseudo-expert trajectories and performs conservative self-distillation to achieve state-of-the-art planning scores on NAVSIM and nuScenes.
MindVLA-U1 is the first unified streaming VLA architecture that surpasses human drivers on WOD-E2E planning metrics while matching VA latency and preserving language interfaces.
DAWN couples a world predictor with a world-conditioned action denoiser in latent space so that each refines the other recursively, yielding strong planning and safety results on autonomous driving benchmarks.
DriveFuture achieves SOTA results on NAVSIM by conditioning latent world model states on future predictions to directly inform trajectory planning.
ProDrive couples a query-centric planner with a BEV world model for end-to-end ego-environment co-evolution, enabling future-outcome assessment that improves safety and efficiency over reactive baselines on NAVSIM v1.
Creates LTD dataset for open-ended traffic VQA and trains UniVLT model to achieve SOTA on unified microscopic AD and macroscopic traffic reasoning tasks.
OneDrive unifies heterogeneous decoding in a single VLM transformer decoder for end-to-end driving, achieving 0.28 L2 error and 0.18 collision rate on nuScenes plus 86.8 PDMS on NAVSIM.
FeaXDrive improves end-to-end autonomous driving by shifting diffusion planning to a trajectory-centric formulation with curvature-constrained training, drivable-area guidance, and GRPO post-training, yielding stronger closed-loop performance and feasibility on NAVSIM.
MOSAIC is a scaling-aware data selection framework that outperforms baselines in training end-to-end autonomous driving planners, achieving comparable or better EPDMS scores with up to 80% less data.
Orion-Lite uses latent feature distillation and trajectory supervision to create a vision-only model that surpasses its LLM-based teacher on closed-loop Bench2Drive evaluation, achieving a new SOTA driving score of 80.6.
DVGT-2 is a streaming vision-geometry-action model that jointly reconstructs dense 3D geometry and plans trajectories online, achieving better reconstruction than prior batch methods while transferring directly to planning benchmarks without fine-tuning.
DriveLaW unifies video world modeling and trajectory planning by injecting video-generator latents into a diffusion planner, achieving SOTA video prediction and a new record on the NAVSIM planning benchmark.
Pseudo-expert regularized offline RL reduces collisions and improves route completion for camera-based driving models trained on fixed simulator datasets from nuScenes.
SpaceDrive integrates 3D positional encodings derived from depth and ego-states into VLMs, replacing digit tokens to improve spatial reasoning and trajectory regression in autonomous driving.
SimScale synthesizes unseen driving states from real logs via neural rendering and reactive environments, generates pseudo-expert trajectories, and shows that co-training on real plus simulated data improves planning robustness and generalization on real benchmarks, with gains scaling by simulation
CogDriver-Agent with sparse temporal memory and spatiotemporal distillation on CogDriver-Data achieves 22% higher closed-loop Driving Score on Bench2Drive and 21% lower mean L2 error on nuScenes.
PRIX presents an efficient camera-only planner with a novel CaRT module that matches larger multimodal models on NavSim and nuScenes while reducing model size and inference time.
EnDfuser replaces point-estimate trajectory planning with ensemble diffusion in a single attention-pooling transformer module to model posterior trajectory uncertainty and improve safety in end-to-end autonomous driving.
FSDrive uses a generated future scene frame as visual spatio-temporal CoT to improve VLA models for safer autonomous driving trajectory prediction.
citing papers explorer
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4DLidarOpen: An Open 4D FMCW Lidar Dataset for Motion-Aware Autonomous Driving
4DLidarOpen is a new open dataset providing synchronized 4D FMCW Lidar velocity measurements, multi-Lidar and camera data, and 3D bounding-box annotations with track IDs to support benchmarks on 3D detection, BEV segmentation, flow prediction, and motion forecasting.
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SCORP: Scene-Consistent Multi-agent Diffusion Planning with Stable Online Reinforcement Post-Training for Cooperative Driving
SCORP delivers 10-28% gains in safety and 2-7% in efficiency metrics on WOMD by using dual-path scene conditioning in diffusion planning plus variance-gated group-relative policy optimization for closed-loop stability.
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Fine-tuning is Not Enough: A Parallel Framework for Collaborative Imitation and Reinforcement Learning in End-to-end Autonomous Driving
PaIR-Drive runs IL and RL in parallel branches with a tree-structured sampler to reach 91.2 PDMS and 87.9 EPDMS on NAVSIM benchmarks while outperforming sequential RL fine-tuning and correcting some human errors.
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AlphaDrive: Unleashing the Power of VLMs in Autonomous Driving via Reinforcement Learning and Reasoning
AlphaDrive uses GRPO-based RL rewards and two-stage SFT+RL training on VLMs to improve autonomous driving planning performance and efficiency while producing emergent multimodal capabilities.
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Beyond Imitation: Learning Safe End-to-End Autonomous Driving from Hard Negatives
BeyondDrive augments imitation learning with synthesized safety-critical negative trajectories and a repulsive loss to improve safety in autonomous driving, reporting 89.7 PDMS on NAVSIMv1 and generalization to other models.
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CLOVER: Closed-Loop Value Estimation and Ranking for End-to-End Autonomous Driving Planning
CLOVER is a closed-loop generator-scorer framework that expands proposal coverage with pseudo-expert trajectories and performs conservative self-distillation to achieve state-of-the-art planning scores on NAVSIM and nuScenes.
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MindVLA-U1: VLA Beats VA with Unified Streaming Architecture for Autonomous Driving
MindVLA-U1 is the first unified streaming VLA architecture that surpasses human drivers on WOD-E2E planning metrics while matching VA latency and preserving language interfaces.
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The DAWN of World-Action Interactive Models
DAWN couples a world predictor with a world-conditioned action denoiser in latent space so that each refines the other recursively, yielding strong planning and safety results on autonomous driving benchmarks.
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DriveFuture: Future-Aware Latent World Models for Autonomous Driving
DriveFuture achieves SOTA results on NAVSIM by conditioning latent world model states on future predictions to directly inform trajectory planning.
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ProDrive: Proactive Planning for Autonomous Driving via Ego-Environment Co-Evolution
ProDrive couples a query-centric planner with a BEV world model for end-to-end ego-environment co-evolution, enabling future-outcome assessment that improves safety and efficiency over reactive baselines on NAVSIM v1.
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Towards Safe Mobility: A Unified Transportation Foundation Model enabled by Open-Ended Vision-Language Dataset
Creates LTD dataset for open-ended traffic VQA and trains UniVLT model to achieve SOTA on unified microscopic AD and macroscopic traffic reasoning tasks.
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OneDrive: Unified Multi-Paradigm Driving with Vision-Language-Action Models
OneDrive unifies heterogeneous decoding in a single VLM transformer decoder for end-to-end driving, achieving 0.28 L2 error and 0.18 collision rate on nuScenes plus 86.8 PDMS on NAVSIM.
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FeaXDrive: Feasibility-aware Trajectory-Centric Diffusion Planning for End-to-End Autonomous Driving
FeaXDrive improves end-to-end autonomous driving by shifting diffusion planning to a trajectory-centric formulation with curvature-constrained training, drivable-area guidance, and GRPO post-training, yielding stronger closed-loop performance and feasibility on NAVSIM.
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Scaling-Aware Data Selection for End-to-End Autonomous Driving Systems
MOSAIC is a scaling-aware data selection framework that outperforms baselines in training end-to-end autonomous driving planners, achieving comparable or better EPDMS scores with up to 80% less data.
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Orion-Lite: Distilling LLM Reasoning into Efficient Vision-Only Driving Models
Orion-Lite uses latent feature distillation and trajectory supervision to create a vision-only model that surpasses its LLM-based teacher on closed-loop Bench2Drive evaluation, achieving a new SOTA driving score of 80.6.
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DVGT-2: Vision-Geometry-Action Model for Autonomous Driving at Scale
DVGT-2 is a streaming vision-geometry-action model that jointly reconstructs dense 3D geometry and plans trajectories online, achieving better reconstruction than prior batch methods while transferring directly to planning benchmarks without fine-tuning.
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DriveLaW:Unifying Planning and Video Generation in a Latent Driving World
DriveLaW unifies video world modeling and trajectory planning by injecting video-generator latents into a diffusion planner, achieving SOTA video prediction and a new record on the NAVSIM planning benchmark.
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Pseudo-Expert Regularized Offline RL for End-to-End Autonomous Driving in Photorealistic Closed-Loop Environments
Pseudo-expert regularized offline RL reduces collisions and improves route completion for camera-based driving models trained on fixed simulator datasets from nuScenes.
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SpaceDrive: Infusing Spatial Awareness into VLM-based Autonomous Driving
SpaceDrive integrates 3D positional encodings derived from depth and ego-states into VLMs, replacing digit tokens to improve spatial reasoning and trajectory regression in autonomous driving.
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SimScale: Learning to Drive via Real-World Simulation at Scale
SimScale synthesizes unseen driving states from real logs via neural rendering and reactive environments, generates pseudo-expert trajectories, and shows that co-training on real plus simulated data improves planning robustness and generalization on real benchmarks, with gains scaling by simulation
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CogDriver: Integrating Cognitive Inertia for Temporally Coherent Planning in Autonomous Driving
CogDriver-Agent with sparse temporal memory and spatiotemporal distillation on CogDriver-Data achieves 22% higher closed-loop Driving Score on Bench2Drive and 21% lower mean L2 error on nuScenes.
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PRIX: Learning to Plan from Raw Pixels for End-to-End Autonomous Driving
PRIX presents an efficient camera-only planner with a novel CaRT module that matches larger multimodal models on NavSim and nuScenes while reducing model size and inference time.
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Using Ensemble Diffusion to Estimate Uncertainty for End-to-End Autonomous Driving
EnDfuser replaces point-estimate trajectory planning with ensemble diffusion in a single attention-pooling transformer module to model posterior trajectory uncertainty and improve safety in end-to-end autonomous driving.
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FutureSightDrive: Thinking Visually with Spatio-Temporal CoT for Autonomous Driving
FSDrive uses a generated future scene frame as visual spatio-temporal CoT to improve VLA models for safer autonomous driving trajectory prediction.
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VERDI: VLM-Embedded Reasoning for Autonomous Driving
VERDI aligns perception, prediction, and planning outputs of end-to-end AD models with VLM-generated text features at training time to embed structured reasoning, yielding up to 11% better l2 distance and 10% higher non-collision rate in closed-loop tests.
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ORION: A Holistic End-to-End Autonomous Driving Framework by Vision-Language Instructed Action Generation
ORION reports 77.74 Driving Score and 54.62% Success Rate on Bench2Drive, outperforming prior end-to-end methods by 14.28 DS and 19.61% SR through unified VQA and planning optimization.
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Uni-NaVid: A Video-based Vision-Language-Action Model for Unifying Embodied Navigation Tasks
Uni-NaVid unifies diverse embodied navigation tasks into one video-based vision-language-action model trained on 3.6 million samples from four sub-tasks, achieving state-of-the-art performance on benchmarks and real-world tests.
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EMMA: End-to-End Multimodal Model for Autonomous Driving
EMMA is an end-to-end multimodal LLM that converts camera data into trajectories, objects, and road graphs via text prompts and reports state-of-the-art motion planning on nuScenes plus competitive detection results on Waymo.
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Senna: Bridging Large Vision-Language Models and End-to-End Autonomous Driving
Senna decouples language-based high-level planning from an LVLM with low-level trajectory prediction from an E2E model, reporting 27% lower planning error and 33% lower collisions after pre-training on DriveX and fine-tuning on nuScenes.
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Hydra-MDP: End-to-end Multimodal Planning with Multi-target Hydra-Distillation
Hydra-MDP uses multi-teacher distillation and a multi-head decoder to learn diverse, metric-specific trajectories in an end-to-end autonomous-driving planner, winning the Navsim challenge.
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SafeAlign-VLA: A Negative-Enhanced Safe Alignment Framework for Risk-Aware Autonomous Driving
SafeAlign-VLA uses counterfactual safety pairing and anchor-based group relative policy optimization to incorporate negative data for safer VLA-based autonomous driving.
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DriveSafer: End-to-End Autonomous Driving with Safety Guidance
DriveSafer reduces catastrophic failures (PDMS=0) by 48% and drivable-area compliance failures by over 65% versus DiffusionDrive on the NAVSIM benchmark by combining training-time safety constraints with inference-time guidance.
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EponaV2: Driving World Model with Comprehensive Future Reasoning
EponaV2 advances perception-free driving world models by forecasting comprehensive future 3D geometry and semantic representations, achieving SOTA planning performance on NAVSIM benchmarks.
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Causality-Aware End-to-End Autonomous Driving via Ego-Centric Joint Scene Modeling
CaAD adds ego-centric joint-causal modeling and causality-aware policy alignment to end-to-end driving, reporting Driving Score 87.53 and PDMS 91.1 on Bench2Drive and NAVSIM.
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Driving Intents Amplify Planning-Oriented Reinforcement Learning
DIAL expands continuous-action driving policies via intent-conditioned flow matching and multi-intent GRPO, lifting best-of-N preference scores above human demonstrations for the first time on WOD-E2E.
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REAP: Reinforcement-Learning End-to-End Autonomous Parking with Gaussian Splatting Simulator for Real2Sim2Real Transfer
REAP trains an end-to-end SAC policy with behavior cloning and collision penalties inside a 3DGS Real2Sim simulator and transfers it to physical vehicles, succeeding in narrow mechanical parking slots.
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RAD-2: Scaling Reinforcement Learning in a Generator-Discriminator Framework
RAD-2 uses a diffusion generator and RL discriminator to cut collision rates by 56% in closed-loop autonomous driving planning.
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CrowdVLA: Embodied Vision-Language-Action Agents for Context-Aware Crowd Simulation
CrowdVLA introduces vision-language-action agents for crowd simulation that reason about scene semantics, social norms, and action consequences using fine-tuned models and simulation rollouts.
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DynFlowDrive: Flow-Based Dynamic World Modeling for Autonomous Driving
DynFlowDrive models action-conditioned scene transitions via rectified flow in latent space and adds stability-aware trajectory selection, showing gains on nuScenes and NavSim without added inference cost.
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DIVER: Reinforced Diffusion Breaks Imitation Bottlenecks in End-to-End Autonomous Driving
DIVER uses RL-guided diffusion to produce diverse feasible trajectories from one ground-truth path, addressing mode collapse in imitation learning for autonomous driving.
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FocalAD: Local Motion Planning for End-to-End Autonomous Driving
FocalAD adds an ego-local graph interactor and focal loss to prioritize decision-critical neighbors, yielding lower collision rates than prior methods on nuScenes, Bench2Drive, and especially the Adv-nuScenes robustness set.
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DeepSight: Long-Horizon World Modeling via Latent States Prediction for End-to-End Autonomous Driving
DeepSight uses parallel latent feature prediction in BEV for long-horizon world modeling and adaptive text reasoning to reach state-of-the-art closed-loop performance on the Bench2drive benchmark.
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Do Open-Loop Metrics Predict Closed-Loop Driving? A Cross-Benchmark Correlation Study of NAVSIM and Bench2Drive
Cross-benchmark analysis of 8 methods shows NAVSIM PDM Score correlates with Bench2Drive Driving Score at Spearman ρ=0.90, with Ego Progress as the strongest single predictor and a simpler 3-metric formula matching the full score.