Proposes EpG and OOI metrics showing agentic workflows use 4.33x more energy per successful goal than linear baselines due to orchestration structure.
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Carbon Emissions and Large Neural Network Training
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abstract
The computation demand for machine learning (ML) has grown rapidly recently, which comes with a number of costs. Estimating the energy cost helps measure its environmental impact and finding greener strategies, yet it is challenging without detailed information. We calculate the energy use and carbon footprint of several recent large models-T5, Meena, GShard, Switch Transformer, and GPT-3-and refine earlier estimates for the neural architecture search that found Evolved Transformer. We highlight the following opportunities to improve energy efficiency and CO2 equivalent emissions (CO2e): Large but sparsely activated DNNs can consume <1/10th the energy of large, dense DNNs without sacrificing accuracy despite using as many or even more parameters. Geographic location matters for ML workload scheduling since the fraction of carbon-free energy and resulting CO2e vary ~5X-10X, even within the same country and the same organization. We are now optimizing where and when large models are trained. Specific datacenter infrastructure matters, as Cloud datacenters can be ~1.4-2X more energy efficient than typical datacenters, and the ML-oriented accelerators inside them can be ~2-5X more effective than off-the-shelf systems. Remarkably, the choice of DNN, datacenter, and processor can reduce the carbon footprint up to ~100-1000X. These large factors also make retroactive estimates of energy cost difficult. To avoid miscalculations, we believe ML papers requiring large computational resources should make energy consumption and CO2e explicit when practical. We are working to be more transparent about energy use and CO2e in our future research. To help reduce the carbon footprint of ML, we believe energy usage and CO2e should be a key metric in evaluating models, and we are collaborating with MLPerf developers to include energy usage during training and inference in this industry standard benchmark.
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- abstract The computation demand for machine learning (ML) has grown rapidly recently, which comes with a number of costs. Estimating the energy cost helps measure its environmental impact and finding greener strategies, yet it is challenging without detailed information. We calculate the energy use and carbon footprint of several recent large models-T5, Meena, GShard, Switch Transformer, and GPT-3-and refine earlier estimates for the neural architecture search that found Evolved Transformer. We highlight the following opportunities to improve energy efficiency and CO2 equivalent emissions (CO2e): Large
co-cited works
representative citing papers
Develops the Inference-Cost Phillips Curve linking AI inference costs to inflation dynamics, derives structural slopes and optimal monetary policy, and reports empirical estimates from US and G7 data that align with theoretical predictions.
QuBD extends algorithmic complexity estimation to quantized DNN weights, revealing that complexity decreases during learning, increases with overfitting, follows grokking patterns, and correlates with generalization.
Introduces the Amortized Efficiency Threshold (AET) to identify the deployment volume at which neural combinatorial optimization solvers achieve lower total energy use than heuristic baselines after accounting for training costs.
DUET improves RLVR by allocating tokens across both prompt selection and rollout length, outperforming full-budget baselines even when using only half the tokens.
TokenArena is a continuous benchmark for AI inference endpoints that measures output speed, time to first token, blended price, effective context, quality, and modeled energy to produce composites of joules per correct answer, dollars per correct answer, and endpoint fidelity.
SAT trains multi-LLM teams with sequential block updates to deliver monotonic gains and plug-and-play model swaps that provably improve performance bounds.
Single-electron and single-photon stochastic physical neural networks achieve over 97% MNIST test accuracy when trained with empirical outputs in the backward pass using few trials per layer.
In Kuramoto networks at equilibrium, weak nudging makes phase displacement the exact gradient of loss w.r.t. natural frequencies, enabling frequency learning that beats weight learning and resolves convergence via spectral initialization.
Short input phrases can irreversibly overwrite hidden states in Mamba models, impairing information retrieval on a new benchmark while leaving pure Transformer models unaffected.
DenseAMs show tradeoffs between entropy production, retrieval accuracy, and speed at intermediate loads, with a new failure mode in higher-order networks at finite temperature.
SAM 3 introduces promptable concept segmentation that doubles accuracy of prior systems on images and videos while improving standard SAM segmentation performance.
A promptable model trained on 1B masks achieves competitive zero-shot segmentation performance across tasks and is released publicly with its dataset.
MEMIT scales direct memory editing in transformers from single facts to thousands of associations by optimizing MLP weight updates.
OPT releases open decoder-only transformers up to 175B parameters that match GPT-3 performance at one-seventh the carbon cost, along with code and training logs.
Latent diffusion models achieve state-of-the-art inpainting and competitive results on unconditional generation, scene synthesis, and super-resolution by performing the diffusion process in the latent space of pretrained autoencoders with cross-attention conditioning, while cutting computational and
Multitask fine-tuning of an encoder-decoder model on prompted datasets produces zero-shot generalization that often beats models up to 16 times larger on standard benchmarks.
Proposes a textbook-based true/false QA task where PTLMs score ~50% closed-book even after pre-training on the text and ~60% open-book with retrieval.
Poisoning external knowledge bases with LLM-agent-crafted documents can increase RAG inference token consumption by up to 13.12 times at over 90% success rate while preserving answer quality.
DUET is a photonic tensor core paradigm that uses structural symmetry in VODICs to support arbitrary signed operands directly, experimentally tested on image classification, segmentation, and Transformer tasks.
AI data center waste heat upgraded by heat pumps can drive direct air capture to achieve net CO2 removal and offset operational emissions in several US states under current and 2030 scenarios.
Fixing the visual encoder in multilingual CLIP isolates text-branch deficits as the cause of lower visual grounding performance for low-resource languages, with model scaling widening some gaps but not others.
A memristor-array Hopfield network uses device nonlinearity to exceed classical memory capacity with K ~ 0.14N experimentally and superlinear K ~ 0.3 N^1.2 in simulations.
UniSD unifies self-distillation components for autoregressive LLMs and its full integrated version improves base models by 5.4 points and baselines by 2.8 points across six benchmarks.
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