Local attention strictly enlarges the class of regular languages recognizable by fixed-precision transformers by adding a second past operator in linear temporal logic, with global and local attention being expressively complementary.
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abstract
We present OLMo 2, the next generation of our fully open language models. OLMo 2 includes a family of dense autoregressive language models at 7B, 13B and 32B scales with fully released artifacts -- model weights, full training data, training code and recipes, training logs and thousands of intermediate checkpoints. In this work, we describe our modified model architecture and training recipe, focusing on techniques for achieving better training stability and improved per-token efficiency. Our updated pretraining data mixture introduces a new, specialized data mix called Dolmino Mix 1124, which significantly improves model capabilities across many downstream task benchmarks when introduced via late-stage curriculum training (i.e. specialized data during the annealing phase of pretraining). Finally, we incorporate best practices from T\"ulu 3 to develop OLMo 2-Instruct, focusing on permissive data and extending our final-stage reinforcement learning with verifiable rewards (RLVR). Our OLMo 2 base models sit at the Pareto frontier of performance to training compute, often matching or outperforming open-weight only models like Llama 3.1, Qwen 2.5, and Gemma 2 while using fewer FLOPs and with fully transparent training data, code, and recipe. Our fully open OLMo 2-Instruct models are competitive with open-weight only models of comparable size and even some proprietary models like GPT-3.5 Turbo and GPT 4o Mini.
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- abstract We present OLMo 2, the next generation of our fully open language models. OLMo 2 includes a family of dense autoregressive language models at 7B, 13B and 32B scales with fully released artifacts -- model weights, full training data, training code and recipes, training logs and thousands of intermediate checkpoints. In this work, we describe our modified model architecture and training recipe, focusing on techniques for achieving better training stability and improved per-token efficiency. Our updated pretraining data mixture introduces a new, specialized data mix called Dolmino Mix 1124, which
co-cited works
representative citing papers
First empirical study of correctness bugs in torch.compile characterizes their patterns and proposes AlignGuard, which found 23 confirmed new bugs via LLM-guided test mutation.
Self-distillation token rewards measure input-response-feedback pointwise mutual information, and CREDIT extracts the input-specific component with contrastive baselines to improve LLM reasoning performance.
RL on binary rewards boosts LLM factual recall by ~27% relative across models by redistributing probability mass to latent correct answers rather than acquiring new knowledge.
Linear probes on LM hidden states detect grammaticality better than string probabilities, generalize to human benchmarks and other languages, and correlate weakly with likelihood.
Full development of 7B and 32B Olmo 3 models used 12.3 GWh datacenter energy and emitted 4,251 tCO2eq, with development overheads accounting for 82% of compute and reasoning models costing 17x more to post-train than instruction-tuned ones.
In LLM feed-forward networks, the top 1% of channels per layer carry a median 58.7% of loss sensitivity, forming supernodes whose protection enables effective 50% sparsity pruning with much lower perplexity than baselines.
EmbodiedMidtrain mid-trains VLMs on curated VLA-aligned data subsets to improve downstream performance on robot manipulation benchmarks.
Supervised fine-tuning of LLMs often fails to fully internalize all training instances due to five recurring causes including missing prerequisites and data conflicts, as diagnosed via a new framework across multiple models.
A recurrent-depth architecture enables language models to improve reasoning performance by iterating computation in latent space, achieving gains equivalent to much larger models on benchmarks.
Annotation-anchored training reduces semantic diversity collapse in post-trained language models by a factor of six compared to standard supervised fine-tuning while preserving instruction-following and improving with scale.
LLMs exhibit three geometric phases in next-token prediction—seeding multiplexing, hoisting overriding, and focal convergence—where predictive subspaces rise, stabilize, and converge across layers.
Cola DLM proposes a hierarchical latent diffusion model that learns a text-to-latent mapping, fits a global semantic prior in continuous space with a block-causal DiT, and performs conditional decoding, establishing latent prior modeling as an alternative to token-level autoregressive language model
SparseForge achieves 57.27% zero-shot accuracy on LLaMA-2-7B at 2:4 sparsity using only 5B retraining tokens, beating the dense baseline and nearly matching a 40B-token SOTA method.
νGPT is a modified parameterization of normalized transformers that enables learning rate transfer across width, depth, and token horizon.
Certain errors in proxy rewards for policy gradient methods can be benign or beneficial by preventing policies from stalling on outputs with mediocre ground truth rewards, enabling improved RLHF metrics and reward design insights.
X-GRAM applies data-aware dynamic token injection with hybrid hashing and local feature extraction to achieve up to 4.4 accuracy point gains over vanilla backbones and 3.2 over retrieval baselines at 0.73B-1.15B scales using 50% smaller tables.
Recurrent Transformers add per-layer recurrent memory via self-attention on own activations plus a tiling algorithm that reduces training memory traffic, yielding better C4 pretraining cross-entropy than parameter-matched standard transformers with fewer layers.
OmniMouse demonstrates data-driven scaling in multi-task brain models on a 150B-token neural dataset, achieving SOTA across prediction, decoding, and forecasting while model size gains saturate.
Evidence for cross-modal representational convergence weakens substantially at scale and in realistic many-to-many settings, indicating models learn rich but distinct representations.
BAR trains independent domain experts via separate mid-training, SFT, and RL pipelines then composes them with a MoE router to match monolithic retraining performance at lower cost and without catastrophic forgetting.
The LENS framework applied to 192 real-world settings shows moderate natural prompt distribution shifts cause 73% average performance loss in deployed LLMs, especially across user groups and regions.
RISE applies CountSketch to dual lexical and semantic channels derived from output-layer gradient outer products, cutting data attribution storage by up to 112x and enabling retrospective and prospective influence analysis on LLMs up to 32B parameters.
Causal interventions reveal that coordination islands block filler-gap mechanisms in Transformers in a gradient way matching humans, yielding the hypothesis that 'and' encodes relational dependencies differently in extractable vs. conjunctive uses.
citing papers explorer
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Characterizing the Expressivity of Local Attention in Transformers
Local attention strictly enlarges the class of regular languages recognizable by fixed-precision transformers by adding a second past operator in linear temporal logic, with global and local attention being expressively complementary.
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Demystifying the Silence of Correctness Bugs in PyTorch Compiler
First empirical study of correctness bugs in torch.compile characterizes their patterns and proposes AlignGuard, which found 23 confirmed new bugs via LLM-guided test mutation.
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From Generic Correlation to Input-Specific Credit in On-Policy Self Distillation
Self-distillation token rewards measure input-response-feedback pointwise mutual information, and CREDIT extracts the input-specific component with contrastive baselines to improve LLM reasoning performance.
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Beyond Reasoning: Reinforcement Learning Unlocks Parametric Knowledge in LLMs
RL on binary rewards boosts LLM factual recall by ~27% relative across models by redistributing probability mass to latent correct answers rather than acquiring new knowledge.
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Implicit Representations of Grammaticality in Language Models
Linear probes on LM hidden states detect grammaticality better than string probabilities, generalize to human benchmarks and other languages, and correlate weakly with likelihood.
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The Hidden Cost of Thinking: Energy Use and Environmental Impact of LMs Beyond Pretraining
Full development of 7B and 32B Olmo 3 models used 12.3 GWh datacenter energy and emitted 4,251 tCO2eq, with development overheads accounting for 82% of compute and reasoning models costing 17x more to post-train than instruction-tuned ones.
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Supernodes and Halos: Loss-Critical Hubs in LLM Feed-Forward Layers
In LLM feed-forward networks, the top 1% of channels per layer carry a median 58.7% of loss sensitivity, forming supernodes whose protection enables effective 50% sparsity pruning with much lower perplexity than baselines.
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EmbodiedMidtrain: Bridging the Gap between Vision-Language Models and Vision-Language-Action Models via Mid-training
EmbodiedMidtrain mid-trains VLMs on curated VLA-aligned data subsets to improve downstream performance on robot manipulation benchmarks.
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Why Supervised Fine-Tuning Fails to Learn: A Systematic Study of Incomplete Learning in Large Language Models
Supervised fine-tuning of LLMs often fails to fully internalize all training instances due to five recurring causes including missing prerequisites and data conflicts, as diagnosed via a new framework across multiple models.
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Scaling up Test-Time Compute with Latent Reasoning: A Recurrent Depth Approach
A recurrent-depth architecture enables language models to improve reasoning performance by iterating computation in latent space, achieving gains equivalent to much larger models on benchmarks.
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Annotations Mitigate Post-Training Mode Collapse
Annotation-anchored training reduces semantic diversity collapse in post-trained language models by a factor of six compared to standard supervised fine-tuning while preserving instruction-following and improving with scale.
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A Geometric Perspective on Next-Token Prediction in Large Language Models: Three Emerging Phases
LLMs exhibit three geometric phases in next-token prediction—seeding multiplexing, hoisting overriding, and focal convergence—where predictive subspaces rise, stabilize, and converge across layers.
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Continuous Latent Diffusion Language Model
Cola DLM proposes a hierarchical latent diffusion model that learns a text-to-latent mapping, fits a global semantic prior in continuous space with a block-causal DiT, and performs conditional decoding, establishing latent prior modeling as an alternative to token-level autoregressive language model
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SparseForge: Efficient Semi-Structured LLM Sparsification via Annealing of Hessian-Guided Soft-Mask
SparseForge achieves 57.27% zero-shot accuracy on LLaMA-2-7B at 2:4 sparsity using only 5B retraining tokens, beating the dense baseline and nearly matching a 40B-token SOTA method.
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Learning Rate Transfer in Normalized Transformers
νGPT is a modified parameterization of normalized transformers that enables learning rate transfer across width, depth, and token horizon.
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When Errors Can Be Beneficial: A Categorization of Imperfect Rewards for Policy Gradient
Certain errors in proxy rewards for policy gradient methods can be benign or beneficial by preventing policies from stalling on outputs with mediocre ground truth rewards, enabling improved RLHF metrics and reward design insights.
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Beyond N-gram: Data-Aware X-GRAM Extraction for Efficient Embedding Parameter Scaling
X-GRAM applies data-aware dynamic token injection with hybrid hashing and local feature extraction to achieve up to 4.4 accuracy point gains over vanilla backbones and 3.2 over retrieval baselines at 0.73B-1.15B scales using 50% smaller tables.
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The Recurrent Transformer: Greater Effective Depth and Efficient Decoding
Recurrent Transformers add per-layer recurrent memory via self-attention on own activations plus a tiling algorithm that reduces training memory traffic, yielding better C4 pretraining cross-entropy than parameter-matched standard transformers with fewer layers.
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OmniMouse: Scaling properties of multi-modal, multi-task Brain Models on 150B Neural Tokens
OmniMouse demonstrates data-driven scaling in multi-task brain models on a 150B-token neural dataset, achieving SOTA across prediction, decoding, and forecasting while model size gains saturate.
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Back into Plato's Cave: Examining Cross-modal Representational Convergence at Scale
Evidence for cross-modal representational convergence weakens substantially at scale and in realistic many-to-many settings, indicating models learn rich but distinct representations.
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Train Separately, Merge Together: Modular Post-Training with Mixture-of-Experts
BAR trains independent domain experts via separate mid-training, SFT, and RL pipelines then composes them with a MoE router to match monolithic retraining performance at lower cost and without catastrophic forgetting.
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Measuring Distribution Shift in User Prompts and Its Effects on LLM Performance
The LENS framework applied to 192 real-world settings shows moderate natural prompt distribution shifts cause 73% average performance loss in deployed LLMs, especially across user groups and regions.
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Sketching the Readout of Large Language Models for Scalable Data Attribution and Valuation
RISE applies CountSketch to dual lexical and semantic channels derived from output-layer gradient outer products, cutting data attribution storage by up to 112x and enabling retrospective and prospective influence analysis on LLMs up to 32B parameters.
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Causal Drawbridges: Characterizing Gradient Blocking of Syntactic Islands in Transformer LMs
Causal interventions reveal that coordination islands block filler-gap mechanisms in Transformers in a gradient way matching humans, yielding the hypothesis that 'and' encodes relational dependencies differently in extractable vs. conjunctive uses.
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The Master Key Hypothesis: Unlocking Cross-Model Capability Transfer via Linear Subspace Alignment
The Master Key Hypothesis states that capabilities are low-dimensional directions transferable across models through linear subspace alignment, with UNLOCK demonstrating gains such as 12.1% accuracy improvement on MATH when transferring CoT from 14B to 7B models.
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Exclusive Unlearning
Exclusive Unlearning makes LLMs safe by forgetting all but retained domain knowledge, protecting against jailbreaks while preserving useful responses in areas like medicine and math.
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SAM 3D: 3Dfy Anything in Images
SAM 3D reconstructs 3D objects from single images with geometry, texture, and pose using human-model annotated data at scale and synthetic-to-real training, achieving 5:1 human preference wins.
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LLMs Get Lost In Multi-Turn Conversation
LLMs drop 39% in performance during multi-turn conversations due to premature assumptions and inability to recover from early errors.
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Muon is Scalable for LLM Training
Muon optimizer with weight decay and update scaling achieves ~2x efficiency over AdamW for large LLMs, shown via the Moonlight 3B/16B MoE model trained on 5.7T tokens.
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Toeplitz MLP Mixers are Low Complexity, Information-Rich Sequence Models
Toeplitz MLP Mixers replace attention with masked Toeplitz multiplications for sub-quadratic complexity while retaining more sequence information and outperforming on copying and in-context tasks.
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GiVA: Gradient-Informed Bases for Vector-Based Adaptation
GiVA uses gradients to initialize vector adapters so they match LoRA performance at eight times lower rank while keeping extreme parameter efficiency.
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VLA Foundry: A Unified Framework for Training Vision-Language-Action Models
VLA Foundry provides a single training stack for VLA models and releases open models that match prior closed-source performance or outperform baselines on multi-task manipulation in simulation.
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Nexusformer: Nonlinear Attention Expansion for Stable and Inheritable Transformer Scaling
Nexusformer uses a three-stage nonlinear mapping in attention to enable stable, inheritable scaling of transformers, matching baseline perplexity with up to 41.5% less compute when growing from 240M to 440M parameters.
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(How) Learning Rates Regulate Catastrophic Overtraining
Learning rate decay during SFT increases pretrained model sharpness, which exacerbates catastrophic forgetting and causes overtraining in LLMs.
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Reinforcement Learning for Compositional Generalization with Outcome-Level Optimization
Outcome-level RL with binary or composite rewards improves compositional generalization over supervised fine-tuning by avoiding overfitting to frequent training patterns.