FollowTable is the first large-scale benchmark for instruction-following table retrieval, paired with an Instruction Responsiveness Score, showing that existing models fail to adapt to fine-grained constraints beyond topical similarity.
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A Survey on LLM-as-a-Judge
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abstract
Accurate and consistent evaluation is crucial for decision-making across numerous fields, yet it remains a challenging task due to inherent subjectivity, variability, and scale. Large Language Models (LLMs) have achieved remarkable success across diverse domains, leading to the emergence of "LLM-as-a-Judge," where LLMs are employed as evaluators for complex tasks. With their ability to process diverse data types and provide scalable, cost-effective, and consistent assessments, LLMs present a compelling alternative to traditional expert-driven evaluations. However, ensuring the reliability of LLM-as-a-Judge systems remains a significant challenge that requires careful design and standardization. This paper provides a comprehensive survey of LLM-as-a-Judge, addressing the core question: How can reliable LLM-as-a-Judge systems be built? We explore strategies to enhance reliability, including improving consistency, mitigating biases, and adapting to diverse assessment scenarios. Additionally, we propose methodologies for evaluating the reliability of LLM-as-a-Judge systems, supported by a novel benchmark designed for this purpose. To advance the development and real-world deployment of LLM-as-a-Judge systems, we also discussed practical applications, challenges, and future directions. This survey serves as a foundational reference for researchers and practitioners in this rapidly evolving field.
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- abstract Accurate and consistent evaluation is crucial for decision-making across numerous fields, yet it remains a challenging task due to inherent subjectivity, variability, and scale. Large Language Models (LLMs) have achieved remarkable success across diverse domains, leading to the emergence of "LLM-as-a-Judge," where LLMs are employed as evaluators for complex tasks. With their ability to process diverse data types and provide scalable, cost-effective, and consistent assessments, LLMs present a compelling alternative to traditional expert-driven evaluations. However, ensuring the reliability of L
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representative citing papers
MathNet delivers the largest multilingual Olympiad math dataset and benchmarks where models like Gemini-3.1-Pro reach 78% on solving but embedding models struggle on equivalent problem retrieval, with retrieval augmentation yielding up to 12% gains.
GIANTS-4B, trained with RL on a new 17k-example benchmark of parent-to-child paper insights, achieves 34% relative improvement over gemini-3-pro in LM-judge similarity and is rated higher-impact by a citation predictor.
MediQAl is a new French medical QA benchmark with 32k exam-sourced questions in three formats and cognitive labels, evaluated on 14 LLMs to reveal gaps between factual recall and reasoning performance.
LLMs are applied in a generative pipeline for extracting, normalizing, and interpreting eligibility criteria from securities prospectuses, achieving up to 91% precision in document-level decisions with a conservative bias.
Using frontier models to synthesize plausible-but-wrong FIM completions as hard negatives for SFT improves Delulu exact match by +18.8 and edit similarity by +0.22 on Qwen2.5-Coder-7B while also lifting HumanEval-Infilling and SAFIM.
Introduces the Matter to Mechanism benchmark of 2,645 structured instances and a composite metric suite for evaluating AI co-scientists on problem-to-hypothesis reasoning in battery materials research.
RWGBench is a citation-centric benchmark for related work generation built from 40k CS papers and a 100-paper test set, with multi-dimensional metrics that better match human expert judgment than standard similarity scores.
VIABLE benchmark reveals existing VLM judges are unreliable for VIA tasks (GPT-5.4 at 52.6% diagnostic accuracy with 94.2% self-preference) and proposes VIA-Judge-Agent for improvements.
DirectorBench is a profile-aware diagnostic benchmark that localizes bottlenecks in long-form video generation workflows using structured checkpoints and multi-agent evaluation.
GS-QA is a new benchmark of 2,800 QA pairs on 28 templates using OSM and Wikipedia data to evaluate LLMs on spatial predicates, multi-source reasoning, and diverse answer types including distances and counts.
Systematic review of thirteen malicious-code prompt corpora for coding LLM refusal evaluation that catalogs construction methods, surfaces gaps in human baselines, cross-corpus comparability, and malware taxonomies, and proposes methodological improvements.
ConsumerSimBench evaluates 13 LLMs on reconstructing crowd reactions from 1,553 Chinese social-media topics using 23,122 auditable yes-no criteria, finding maximum coverage of 47.8% by Gemini-3.1-Pro.
CBEA with LCV bounds evidence sets and validates commitments before response generation, achieving zero failures in scoped tests at 0.49-0.60 availability versus near-zero for baselines.
LLM multi-agent systems on lattices show bias-driven order-disorder crossovers instead of true phase transitions, with extracted effective couplings and fields serving as model-specific fingerprints.
StereoTales shows that all tested LLMs emit harmful stereotypes in open-ended stories, with associations adapting to prompt language and targeting locally salient groups rather than transferring uniformly across languages.
Task calibration aligns LLM distributions in latent task spaces to make MBR decoding provably optimal and improve generation quality.
LLM adaptive exploration via runtime code execution outperforms static query generation for information extraction from heterogeneous BIM models on the new ifc-bench v2 benchmark.
ClassEval-Pro benchmark shows frontier LLMs achieve at most 45.6% Pass@1 on class-level code tasks, with logic errors (56%) and dependency errors (38%) as dominant failure modes.
Depression patient simulators produce overly long, low-variability responses that resolve emotions too quickly along a uniform trajectory, with framework choice outweighing model scale.
XTC-Bench reveals that strong performance on generation or understanding tasks in unified multimodal models does not guarantee cross-task semantic consistency, which instead depends on how tightly coupled the learning objectives are across modalities.
MuDABench provides 332 analytical QA instances over large semi-structured document collections, showing standard RAG performs poorly while a multi-agent workflow with planning, extraction, and code generation improves results but leaves a gap to human experts.
LLMs exhibit positional bias and context-dependent scoring patterns when judging document similarity, with each model showing a stable scoring fingerprint but a shared hierarchy of sensitivity to different semantic perturbations.
MM-JudgeBias benchmark shows that many MLLM judges neglect modalities and produce unstable evaluations under small input changes, based on tests of 26 models with over 1,800 samples.
citing papers explorer
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FollowTable: A Benchmark for Instruction-Following Table Retrieval
FollowTable is the first large-scale benchmark for instruction-following table retrieval, paired with an Instruction Responsiveness Score, showing that existing models fail to adapt to fine-grained constraints beyond topical similarity.
-
MathNet: a Global Multimodal Benchmark for Mathematical Reasoning and Retrieval
MathNet delivers the largest multilingual Olympiad math dataset and benchmarks where models like Gemini-3.1-Pro reach 78% on solving but embedding models struggle on equivalent problem retrieval, with retrieval augmentation yielding up to 12% gains.
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GIANTS: Generative Insight Anticipation from Scientific Literature
GIANTS-4B, trained with RL on a new 17k-example benchmark of parent-to-child paper insights, achieves 34% relative improvement over gemini-3-pro in LM-judge similarity and is rated higher-impact by a citation predictor.
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MediQAl: A French Medical Question Answering Dataset for Knowledge and Reasoning Evaluation
MediQAl is a new French medical QA benchmark with 32k exam-sourced questions in three formats and cognitive labels, evaluated on 14 LLMs to reveal gaps between factual recall and reasoning performance.
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LLM-Based Examination of Eligibility Criteria from Securities Prospectuses at the German Central Bank
LLMs are applied in a generative pipeline for extracting, normalizing, and interpreting eligibility criteria from securities prospectuses, achieving up to 91% precision in document-level decisions with a conservative bias.
-
Synthetic Hallucinations, Real Gains: Hard Negatives from Frontier Models for FIM Hallucination Mitigation
Using frontier models to synthesize plausible-but-wrong FIM completions as hard negatives for SFT improves Delulu exact match by +18.8 and edit similarity by +0.22 on Qwen2.5-Coder-7B while also lifting HumanEval-Infilling and SAFIM.
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Matter to Mechanism: A Benchmark for AI Co-Scientists in Materials and Battery Research
Introduces the Matter to Mechanism benchmark of 2,645 structured instances and a composite metric suite for evaluating AI co-scientists on problem-to-hypothesis reasoning in battery materials research.
-
RWGBench: Evaluating Scholarly Positioning in Related Work Generation
RWGBench is a citation-centric benchmark for related work generation built from 40k CS papers and a 100-paper test set, with multi-dimensional metrics that better match human expert judgment than standard similarity scores.
-
A Visually Impaired Assistance Benchmark for VLM-as-a-Judge Evaluation
VIABLE benchmark reveals existing VLM judges are unreliable for VIA tasks (GPT-5.4 at 52.6% diagnostic accuracy with 94.2% self-preference) and proposes VIA-Judge-Agent for improvements.
-
DirectorBench: Diagnosing Long-Form Video Generation with Personalized Multi-Agent Evaluation
DirectorBench is a profile-aware diagnostic benchmark that localizes bottlenecks in long-form video generation workflows using structured checkpoints and multi-agent evaluation.
-
GS-QA: A Benchmark for Geospatial Question Answering
GS-QA is a new benchmark of 2,800 QA pairs on 28 templates using OSM and Wikipedia data to evaluate LLMs on spatial predicates, multi-source reasoning, and diverse answer types including distances and counts.
-
Refusal Evaluation in Coding LLMs and Code Agents: A Systematic Review of Thirteen Malicious-Code Prompt Corpora (2023-2025)
Systematic review of thirteen malicious-code prompt corpora for coding LLM refusal evaluation that catalogs construction methods, surfaces gaps in human baselines, cross-corpus comparability, and malware taxonomies, and proposes methodological improvements.
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Can LLMs Think Like Consumers? Benchmarking Crowd-Level Reaction Reconstruction with ConsumerSimBench
ConsumerSimBench evaluates 13 LLMs on reconstructing crowd reactions from 1,553 Chinese social-media topics using 23,122 auditable yes-no criteria, finding maximum coverage of 47.8% by Gemini-3.1-Pro.
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Recall Isn't Enough: Bounding Commitments in Personalized Language Systems
CBEA with LCV bounds evidence sets and validates commitments before response generation, achieving zero failures in scoped tests at 0.49-0.60 availability versus near-zero for baselines.
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Collective Alignment in LLM Multi-Agent Systems: Disentangling Bias from Cooperation via Statistical Physics
LLM multi-agent systems on lattices show bias-driven order-disorder crossovers instead of true phase transitions, with extracted effective couplings and fields serving as model-specific fingerprints.
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StereoTales: A Multilingual Framework for Open-Ended Stereotype Discovery in LLMs
StereoTales shows that all tested LLMs emit harmful stereotypes in open-ended stories, with associations adapting to prompt language and targeting locally salient groups rather than transferring uniformly across languages.
-
Task-Aware Calibration: Provably Optimal Decoding in LLMs
Task calibration aligns LLM distributions in latent task spaces to make MBR decoding provably optimal and improve generation quality.
-
BIM Information Extraction Through LLM-based Adaptive Exploration
LLM adaptive exploration via runtime code execution outperforms static query generation for information extraction from heterogeneous BIM models on the new ifc-bench v2 benchmark.
-
ClassEval-Pro: A Cross-Domain Benchmark for Class-Level Code Generation
ClassEval-Pro benchmark shows frontier LLMs achieve at most 45.6% Pass@1 on class-level code tasks, with logic errors (56%) and dependency errors (38%) as dominant failure modes.
-
PSI-Bench: Towards Clinically Grounded and Interpretable Evaluation of Depression Patient Simulators
Depression patient simulators produce overly long, low-variability responses that resolve emotions too quickly along a uniform trajectory, with framework choice outweighing model scale.
-
Beyond Accuracy: Benchmarking Cross-Task Consistency in Unified Multimodal Models
XTC-Bench reveals that strong performance on generation or understanding tasks in unified multimodal models does not guarantee cross-task semantic consistency, which instead depends on how tightly coupled the learning objectives are across modalities.
-
Navigating Large-Scale Document Collections: MuDABench for Multi-Document Analytical QA
MuDABench provides 332 analytical QA instances over large semi-structured document collections, showing standard RAG performs poorly while a multi-agent workflow with planning, extraction, and code generation improves results but leaves a gap to human experts.
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Semantic Needles in Document Haystacks: Sensitivity Testing of LLM-as-a-Judge Similarity Scoring
LLMs exhibit positional bias and context-dependent scoring patterns when judging document similarity, with each model showing a stable scoring fingerprint but a shared hierarchy of sensitivity to different semantic perturbations.
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MM-JudgeBias: A Benchmark for Evaluating Compositional Biases in MLLM-as-a-Judge
MM-JudgeBias benchmark shows that many MLLM judges neglect modalities and produce unstable evaluations under small input changes, based on tests of 26 models with over 1,800 samples.
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Evaluating Tool-Using Language Agents: Judge Reliability, Propagation Cascades, and Runtime Mitigation in AgentProp-Bench
AgentProp-Bench shows substring judging agrees with humans at kappa=0.049, LLM ensemble at 0.432, bad-parameter injection propagates with ~0.62 probability, rejection and recovery are independent, and a runtime fix cuts hallucinations 23pp on GPT-4o-mini but not Gemini-2.0-Flash.
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LLM-Based Data Generation and Clinical Skills Evaluation for Low-Resource French OSCEs
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Generate, Filter, Control, Replay: A Comprehensive Survey of Rollout Strategies for LLM Reinforcement Learning
This survey introduces the Generate-Filter-Control-Replay (GFCR) taxonomy to structure rollout pipelines for RL-based post-training of reasoning LLMs.
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PR-CAD: Progressive Refinement for Unified Controllable and Faithful Text-to-CAD Generation with Large Language Models
PR-CAD unifies text-to-CAD generation and editing via progressive refinement with LLMs, a new interaction dataset, and RL-enhanced reasoning to achieve better controllability and faithfulness.
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When Negation Is a Geometry Problem in Vision-Language Models
A direction associated with negation exists in CLIP embedding space and can be steered at test time via representation engineering to produce negation-aware outputs without fine-tuning.
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Using LLM-as-a-Judge/Jury to Advance Scalable, Clinically-Validated Safety Evaluations of Model Responses to Users Demonstrating Psychosis
Seven clinician-informed safety criteria enable LLM-as-a-Judge to reach substantial agreement with human consensus (Cohen's κ up to 0.75) on evaluating LLM responses to users demonstrating psychosis.
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Beyond Verifiable Rewards: Rubric-Based GRM for Reinforced Fine-Tuning SWE Agents
A rubric-based generative reward model improves reinforced fine-tuning of SWE agents by supplying richer behavioral guidance than binary terminal rewards alone.
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When Agents Fail: A Comprehensive Study of Bugs in LLM Agents with Automated Labeling
A large-scale empirical study categorizes bugs in LLM agents and demonstrates that a specialized LLM agent can annotate them accurately at very low cost.
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VIDEOP2R: Video Understanding from Perception to Reasoning
VideoP2R separates perception and reasoning in a process-aware RFT pipeline with a new CoT dataset and PA-GRPO rewards, reaching SOTA on six of seven video benchmarks.
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When Models Outthink Their Safety: Unveiling and Mitigating Self-Jailbreak in Large Reasoning Models
Large Reasoning Models override their own initial safety recognition during multi-step reasoning in a failure mode called Self-Jailbreak, which Chain-of-Guardrail mitigates through targeted trajectory-level step interventions.
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FinAuditing: A Financial Taxonomy-Structured Multi-Document Benchmark for Evaluating LLMs
FinAuditing is a taxonomy-structured multi-document benchmark with 1,102 instances averaging over 33k tokens from XBRL filings, defining three tasks to evaluate LLMs on financial auditing capabilities.
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Do LLMs Overthink Basic Math Reasoning? Benchmarking the Accuracy-Efficiency Tradeoff in Language Models
Evaluations of 53 LLMs on 14 basic math tasks show reasoning models use ~18x more tokens with sometimes lower accuracy, non-monotonic gains from extended budgets, and sharp performance drops under token constraints.
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Bayesian Social Deduction with Graph-Informed Language Models
Hybrid Bayesian-graph LLM agent reaches competitive performance against large models and achieves 67% win rate against humans in controlled Avalon play, outperforming baselines and human teammates.
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Reinforcement Learning for Reasoning in Large Language Models with One Training Example
One training example via RLVR boosts LLM math reasoning from 17.6% to 35.7% average across six benchmarks.
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Consensus Entropy: Harnessing Multi-VLM Agreement for Self-Verifying and Self-Improving OCR
Consensus Entropy measures inter-VLM output agreement to verify OCR reliability and enable self-improving ensembles, yielding 42.1% F1 gains over single-model judging.
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Membership Inference Attacks for Retrieval Based In-Context Learning for Document Question Answering
Black-box membership inference attacks on retrieval-based in-context learning for document QA succeed via query prefixes, with a novel weighted-averaging method outperforming priors even under paraphrasing.
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HistoRAG: Embedding Historical Methodology in Retrieval-Augmented Generation Through Critical Technical Practice
HistoRAG embeds historiographical principles into RAG via temporal windowing, decoupled retrieval, and contestable LLM relevance judgments, evaluated on 102k Der Spiegel articles from 1950-1979.
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Traj-Evolve: A Self-Evolving Multi-Agent System for Patient Trajectory Modeling in Lung Cancer Early Detection
Traj-Evolve combines non-parametric experience retrieval and multi-agent RL with a leave-one-out unification strategy to outperform baselines on lung cancer prediction from up to five years of multimodal EHRs, including in never-smokers.
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AMix-2: Establishing Protein as a Native Modality in Large Language Models
AMix-2 unifies protein sequences and text in one LLM via shared tokens and block-wise diffusion modeling, introduces the ProteinArena benchmark, and reports competitive performance against task-specific protein models and frontier LLMs.
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Towards Context-Invariant Safety Alignment for Large Language Models
Introduces AIR, an asymmetric regularization that anchors open-ended safety prompts to verifiable ones via stop-gradient, improving invariance and accuracy when combined with group preference optimization.
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Do No Harm? Hallucination and Actor-Level Abuse in Web-Deployed Medical Large Language Models
Evaluation of 6233 MedGPTs finds 25-30% with low factual accuracy, 33.6-54.3% violating operational thresholds, and 57% of action-enabled models lacking privacy disclosures.
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From Text to Voice: A Reproducible and Verifiable Framework for Evaluating Tool Calling LLM Agents
A dataset-agnostic framework converts text tool-calling benchmarks to paired audio evaluations via TTS, speaker variation and noise, then evaluates seven omni-modal models showing model- and task-dependent performance with small text-to-voice gaps.
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Hypergraph Enterprise Agentic Reasoner over Heterogeneous Business Systems
HEAR uses a stratified hypergraph ontology to orchestrate evidence-driven multi-hop reasoning over heterogeneous business systems, reaching 94.7% accuracy on supply-chain root-cause tasks with open-weight models.
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SWE-Cycle: Benchmarking Code Agents across the Complete Issue Resolution Cycle
SWE-Cycle benchmark shows sharp drops in code agent success rates from isolated tasks to full autonomous issue resolution, highlighting cross-phase dependency issues.
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Just Ask for a Table: A Thirty-Token User Prompt Defeats Sponsored Recommendations in Twelve LLMs
A 30-token prompt requesting a neutral comparison table cuts sponsored recommendations in LLMs from roughly 50% to near zero.
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PIVOT: Bridging Planning and Execution in LLM Agents via Trajectory Refinement
PIVOT refines LLM agent trajectories through plan-inspect-evolve-verify stages using environment feedback, yielding up to 94% relative gains in constraint satisfaction and 3-5x token efficiency over prior refinement methods.