BloomBench reveals that state-of-the-art VLMs perform well on semantic understanding but struggle with factual recall and creative synthesis, while also showing large English-Arabic performance gaps.
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A Systematic Survey of Prompt Engineering in Large Language Models: Techniques and Applications
Canonical reference. 82% of citing Pith papers cite this work as background.
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abstract
Prompt engineering has emerged as an indispensable technique for extending the capabilities of large language models (LLMs) and vision-language models (VLMs). This approach leverages task-specific instructions, known as prompts, to enhance model efficacy without modifying the core model parameters. Rather than updating the model parameters, prompts allow seamless integration of pre-trained models into downstream tasks by eliciting desired model behaviors solely based on the given prompt. Prompts can be natural language instructions that provide context to guide the model or learned vector representations that activate relevant knowledge. This burgeoning field has enabled success across various applications, from question-answering to commonsense reasoning. However, there remains a lack of systematic organization and understanding of the diverse prompt engineering methods and techniques. This survey paper addresses the gap by providing a structured overview of recent advancements in prompt engineering, categorized by application area. For each prompting approach, we provide a summary detailing the prompting methodology, its applications, the models involved, and the datasets utilized. We also delve into the strengths and limitations of each approach and include a taxonomy diagram and table summarizing datasets, models, and critical points of each prompting technique. This systematic analysis enables a better understanding of this rapidly developing field and facilitates future research by illuminating open challenges and opportunities for prompt engineering.
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representative citing papers
TADI shows that domain-specialized tools orchestrated by an LLM over dual structured and semantic databases can convert heterogeneous wellsite data into evidence-grounded drilling intelligence, with tool design mattering more than model scale.
Incisor uses program analysis and frontier LLMs to select working AWS EC2 instances ex ante for 100% of first-time HPC runs of C/C++/Fortran and Python codes, cutting runtime 54% and costs 44% versus an expert-constrained SkyPilot baseline.
Dynamic Cyber Ranges with LLM defender agents reduce attacker success to 0-55% and preserve evaluation headroom as models advance by using comparable capabilities on both sides.
Atropos uses GCN on inference graphs for early failure prediction and hotswaps to larger LLMs, achieving 74% of large-model performance at 24% cost.
GCTM-OT extracts goal candidates with an LLM, then uses goal-prompted contrastive learning and optimal transport to discover topics that are more coherent, diverse, and aligned with human intent than prior methods on subreddit data.
LLM-native figures embed provenance and enable direct LLM interaction with scientific visualizations to accelerate discovery and improve reproducibility.
RubberDuckBench shows top AI models score around 68% on real GitHub coding questions, rarely answer completely correctly, and hallucinate in 58% of responses on average.
PIAST iteratively optimizes few-shot examples in prompts via Monte Carlo Shapley value estimation, outperforming prior automatic prompting methods and setting new SOTA on classification, simplification, and GSM8K with modest compute.
An AI framework automates Excel tutorial and video creation from task descriptions via an Execution Agent, achieving 8.5% higher task success and 1/20th the authoring time of experts.
A systematic audit of LLM-based AI societies finds that 89.7% of 39 studies violate at least one of six PIMMUR validity principles, with reproductions showing that many claimed collective behaviors disappear when controls are tightened.
An LLM-orchestrated framework enables conformance checking in stroke care from unstructured texts, achieving over 86% conformance in hospital data.
CRAFT is a Pareto-front prompt optimizer that allocates scarce LLM validation calls to candidates near the current front using accuracy- and cost-oriented generators plus NSGA-II retention.
MA-CoT prompting reduces security findings in LLM-generated code by 57.6% on a 200-task dataset and 94.5% on LLMSecEval across C, Java, and Python, outperforming vanilla, zero-shot, and standard CoT strategies.
Reflective Prompt Tuning uses LLM function calling and diagnostic reports to iteratively optimize prompts, yielding up to 12.9 point gains on reasoning tasks while improving calibration.
Proposes nearly balanced TCARDs that minimize the first two generalized word-length pattern components, defines Φ_BCD criterion linked to classical optimality, and constructs designs via coordinate exchange with simulation-calibrated weights for LLM prompt engineering.
Adapting multi-objective pure-exploration bandits enables efficient Pareto prompt set recovery and best feasible prompt identification for LLMs, with linear-case guarantees and empirical gains over baselines.
LLMs perform in-context learning as trajectories through a structured low-dimensional conceptual belief space, with the structure visible in both behavior and internal representations and causally manipulable via interventions.
VISOR is a VLM-based automated test oracle that evaluates robot task correctness and quality from videos while reporting its own uncertainty, tested on GPT and Gemini across four tasks and over 1000 videos with Gemini showing higher recall and GPT higher precision but low uncertainty-correctness tie
Discriminative factorization distinguishes high-quality query sets for black-box model classification, with chance-level error decaying exponentially in query budget and parameters predicting empirical decay rates on auditing tasks.
GRaSp optimizes in-context examples for LLMs via synthetic generation, clustering, dimensionality reduction, and genetic algorithms with diversity-adaptive mutation, reaching 45.84% micro-F1 on financial NER with real data and outperforming zero-shot and random few-shot baselines.
DKPS-based methods predict new model benchmark scores using cached responses, matching baseline mean absolute error with substantially fewer queries and an offline query selection approach.
PragLocker generates function-preserving but non-portable prompts for LLM agents via code-symbol semantic anchoring followed by target-model feedback noise injection.
An LLM framework with tailored prompts and a new dataset of 31,165 annotated instances achieves 0.92 positive recall and 0.85 negative recall for detecting 13 smart contract vulnerability categories.
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