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Proximal Policy Optimization Algorithms
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abstract
We propose a new family of policy gradient methods for reinforcement learning, which alternate between sampling data through interaction with the environment, and optimizing a "surrogate" objective function using stochastic gradient ascent. Whereas standard policy gradient methods perform one gradient update per data sample, we propose a novel objective function that enables multiple epochs of minibatch updates. The new methods, which we call proximal policy optimization (PPO), have some of the benefits of trust region policy optimization (TRPO), but they are much simpler to implement, more general, and have better sample complexity (empirically). Our experiments test PPO on a collection of benchmark tasks, including simulated robotic locomotion and Atari game playing, and we show that PPO outperforms other online policy gradient methods, and overall strikes a favorable balance between sample complexity, simplicity, and wall-time.
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- abstract We propose a new family of policy gradient methods for reinforcement learning, which alternate between sampling data through interaction with the environment, and optimizing a "surrogate" objective function using stochastic gradient ascent. Whereas standard policy gradient methods perform one gradient update per data sample, we propose a novel objective function that enables multiple epochs of minibatch updates. The new methods, which we call proximal policy optimization (PPO), have some of the benefits of trust region policy optimization (TRPO), but they are much simpler to implement, more ge
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representative citing papers
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Weak-to-strong generalization is nearly inevitable in linear logistic regression for most student-teacher pairs without any model capacity mismatch.
Observation and action delays are formally equivalent in cooperative Dec-POMDPs, yielding identical optimal solutions and enabling zero-shot transfer, though learning dynamics differ due to credit assignment and operational constraints.
RefereeBench shows that even the strongest video MLLMs reach only around 60% accuracy on multi-sport refereeing tasks and struggle with rule application and temporal grounding.
OP-GRPO is the first off-policy GRPO method for flow-matching models that reuses trajectories via replay buffer and importance sampling corrections, matching on-policy performance with 34.2% of the training steps.
User-turn generation reveals that LLMs' interaction awareness is largely decoupled from task accuracy, remaining near zero in deterministic settings even as accuracy scales to 96.8% on GSM8K.
Flow-GRPO is the first online RL method for flow matching models, raising GenEval accuracy from 63% to 95% and text-rendering accuracy from 59% to 92% with little reward hacking.
SubMAPG uses a new Partition Multilinear Extension to derive unbiased policy gradients from submodular difference rewards, delivering 1/2-approximation and sublinear dynamic regret for online distributed task allocation in open multi-agent systems.
F-GRPO factorizes group-relative policy optimization into generation and ranking phases within one autoregressive sequence, using order-invariant coverage and position-aware utility rewards to improve top-ranked performance on recommendation and multi-hop QA tasks.
An adaptive smooth Tchebycheff controller for multi-objective RL lets agents reach non-convex Pareto regions in robotic tasks while avoiding the instability of static non-linear scalarizations.
LLM simulators exhibit near-zero selective response to targeted misconception feedback and behave sycophantically, but SFT and SFS-aligned RL improve this property.
MOPD improves on-policy distillation for LLMs by using peer successes for positive patterns and failures for negative examples to create more informative teacher signals.
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Miss-MDPs extend POMDPs with missing-data theory to learn observation missingness patterns and compute near-optimal policies with high-probability guarantees.
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citing papers explorer
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RefereeBench: Are Video MLLMs Ready to be Multi-Sport Referees
RefereeBench shows that even the strongest video MLLMs reach only around 60% accuracy on multi-sport refereeing tasks and struggle with rule application and temporal grounding.
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OP-GRPO: Efficient Off-Policy GRPO for Flow-Matching Models
OP-GRPO is the first off-policy GRPO method for flow-matching models that reuses trajectories via replay buffer and importance sampling corrections, matching on-policy performance with 34.2% of the training steps.
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Flow-GRPO: Training Flow Matching Models via Online RL
Flow-GRPO is the first online RL method for flow matching models, raising GenEval accuracy from 63% to 95% and text-rendering accuracy from 59% to 92% with little reward hacking.
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CaC: Advancing Video Reward Models via Hierarchical Spatiotemporal Concentrating
CaC is a hierarchical spatiotemporal concentrating reward model for video anomalies that reports 25.7% accuracy gains on fine-grained benchmarks and 11.7% anomaly reduction in generated videos via a new dataset and GRPO training with temporal/spatial IoU rewards.
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Dynamic Full-body Motion Agent with Object Interaction via Blending Pre-trained Modular Controllers
A two-stage framework augments HOI data with dynamic priors and blends pre-trained dynamic motion and static interaction agents via a composer network to enable long-term dynamic human-object interactions with higher success rates and reduced training time.
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Overcoming Catastrophic Forgetting in Visual Continual Learning with Reinforcement Fine-Tuning
RaPO reduces catastrophic forgetting in visual continual learning by shaping rewards around policy drift and stabilizing advantages with cross-task exponential moving averages during reinforcement fine-tuning of multimodal models.
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Offline Preference Optimization for Rectified Flow with Noise-Tracked Pairs
PNAPO augments preference data with prior noise pairs and uses straight-line interpolation to create a tighter surrogate objective for offline alignment of rectified flow models.
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Learning Visual Feature-Based World Models via Residual Latent Action
RLA-WM predicts residual latent actions via flow matching to create visual feature world models that outperform prior feature-based and diffusion approaches while enabling offline video-based robot RL.
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Arena as Offline Reward: Efficient Fine-Grained Preference Optimization for Diffusion Models
ArenaPO infers Gaussian capability distributions from pairwise preferences and applies truncated-normal latent inference to derive fine-grained offline rewards for preference optimization of text-to-image diffusion models.
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MotionGRPO: Overcoming Low Intra-Group Diversity in GRPO-Based Egocentric Motion Recovery
MotionGRPO models diffusion sampling as a Markov decision process optimized with Group Relative Policy Optimization, using hybrid rewards and noise injection to boost sample diversity and local joint precision in egocentric motion recovery.
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Stream-R1: Reliability-Perplexity Aware Reward Distillation for Streaming Video Generation
Stream-R1 improves distillation of autoregressive streaming video diffusion models by adaptively weighting supervision with a reward model at both rollout and per-pixel levels.
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GRPO-TTA: Test-Time Visual Tuning for Vision-Language Models via GRPO-Driven Reinforcement Learning
GRPO-TTA applies GRPO to test-time visual tuning of vision-language models via group-wise policy optimization on unlabeled class candidates, outperforming prior TTA methods especially under natural distribution shifts.
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MIRL: Mutual Information-Guided Reinforcement Learning for Vision-Language Models
MIRL uses mutual information to guide trajectory selection and provide separate rewards for visual perception in RLVR for VLMs, achieving 70.22% average accuracy with 25% fewer full trajectories.
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VAnim: Rendering-Aware Sparse State Modeling for Structure-Preserving Vector Animation
VAnim creates open-domain text-to-SVG animations via sparse state updates on a persistent DOM tree, identification-first planning, and rendering-aware RL with a new 134k-example benchmark.
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Beyond Heuristics: Learnable Density Control for 3D Gaussian Splatting
LeGS turns density control in 3D Gaussian Splatting into a learnable RL policy whose reward is derived from a closed-form sensitivity analysis that measures each Gaussian's marginal contribution to reconstruction quality.
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DeVI: Physics-based Dexterous Human-Object Interaction via Synthetic Video Imitation
DeVI enables zero-shot physically plausible dexterous control by imitating synthetic videos via a hybrid 3D-human plus 2D-object tracking reward.
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Render-in-the-Loop: Vector Graphics Generation via Visual Self-Feedback
Render-in-the-Loop reformulates SVG generation as a step-wise visual-context-aware process using self-feedback from rendered intermediate states, VSF training, and RaV inference to outperform baselines on MMSVGBench for Text-to-SVG and Image-to-SVG.
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Hybrid Latent Reasoning with Decoupled Policy Optimization
HyLaR with DePO enables effective RL in hybrid discrete-continuous spaces for multimodal models, outperforming prior MLLMs on perception and understanding benchmarks.
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SceneOrchestra: Efficient Agentic 3D Scene Synthesis via Full Tool-Call Trajectory Generation
SceneOrchestra trains an orchestrator to generate full tool-call trajectories for 3D scene synthesis and uses a discriminator during training to select high-quality plans, yielding state-of-the-art results with lower runtime.
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Learning to Credit the Right Steps: Objective-aware Process Optimization for Visual Generation
OTCA improves GRPO training for visual generation by estimating step importance in trajectories and adaptively weighting multiple reward objectives.
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UDM-GRPO: Stable and Efficient Group Relative Policy Optimization for Uniform Discrete Diffusion Models
UDM-GRPO is the first RL integration for uniform discrete diffusion models, using final clean samples as actions and forward-process trajectory reconstruction to raise GenEval accuracy from 69% to 96% and OCR accuracy from 8% to 57%.
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LeapAlign: Post-Training Flow Matching Models at Any Generation Step by Building Two-Step Trajectories
LeapAlign fine-tunes flow matching models by constructing two consecutive leaps that skip multiple ODE steps with randomized timesteps and consistency weighting, enabling stable updates at any generation step.
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Don't Let the Video Speak: Audio-Contrastive Preference Optimization for Audio-Visual Language Models
Audio-Contrastive Preference Optimization (ACPO) mitigates audio hallucination in AVLMs via output-contrastive and input-contrastive objectives that enforce faithful audio grounding.
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Learning Vision-Language-Action World Models for Autonomous Driving
VLA-World improves autonomous driving by using action-guided future image generation followed by reflective reasoning over the imagined scene to refine trajectories.
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Enhancing MLLM Spatial Understanding via Active 3D Scene Exploration for Multi-Perspective Reasoning
A training-free Visual Chain-of-Thought framework reconstructs high-fidelity 3D meshes from single images and iteratively synthesizes optimal novel views to enhance MLLM spatial comprehension on benchmarks like 3DSRBench.
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Learning to See What You Need: Gaze Attention for Multimodal Large Language Models
Gaze Attention groups visual embeddings into selectable regions and dynamically restricts attention to task-relevant ones, matching dense baselines with up to 90% fewer visual KV entries via added context tokens.
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When Policy Entropy Constraint Fails: Preserving Diversity in Flow-based RLHF via Perceptual Entropy
Policy entropy remains constant in flow-matching models during RLHF due to fixed noise schedules while perceptual diversity collapses from mode-seeking policy gradients, so perceptual entropy constraints are introduced to preserve diversity and improve quality.
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Power Reinforcement Post-Training of Text-to-Image Models with Super-Linear Advantage Shaping
Super-Linear Advantage Shaping (SLAS) introduces a non-linear geometric policy update for RL post-training of text-to-image models that reshapes the local policy space via advantage-dependent Fisher-Rao weighting to reduce reward hacking and improve performance over GRPO baselines.
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Reinforcing Multimodal Reasoning Against Visual Degradation
ROMA improves MLLM robustness to seen and unseen visual corruptions by +2.3-2.4% over GRPO on seven reasoning benchmarks while matching clean accuracy.
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CROP: Expert-Aligned Image Cropping via Compositional Reasoning and Optimizing Preference
CROP uses compositional reasoning and expert preference alignment in VLMs to produce aesthetic crops that match human experts more closely than previous methods.
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RELO: Reinforcement Learning to Localize for Visual Object Tracking
RELO replaces handcrafted spatial priors with a reinforcement learning policy for target localization in visual tracking and reports 57.5% AUC on LaSOText without template updates.
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Think, then Score: Decoupled Reasoning and Scoring for Video Reward Modeling
DeScore decouples CoT reasoning from reward scoring in video reward models using a two-stage training process to improve generalization and avoid optimization bottlenecks of coupled generative RMs.
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Chart-FR1: Visual Focus-Driven Fine-Grained Reasoning on Dense Charts
Chart-FR1 uses Focus-CoT for linking reasoning to visual cues and Focus-GRPO reinforcement learning with efficiency rewards to outperform prior MLLMs on dense chart reasoning tasks.
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State Beyond Appearance: Diagnosing and Improving State Consistency in Dial-Based Measurement Reading
MLLMs ignore dial state geometry and cluster by appearance, causing inconsistency under variations; TriSCA's state-distance alignment, metadata supervision, and objective alignment improve robustness on clock and gauge benchmarks.
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MedSynapse-V: Bridging Visual Perception and Clinical Intuition via Latent Memory Evolution
MedSynapse-V evolves latent diagnostic memories via meta queries, causal counterfactual refinement with RL, and dual-branch memory transition to outperform prior medical VLM methods in diagnostic accuracy.
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ViPO: Visual Preference Optimization at Scale
Poly-DPO improves robustness to noisy preference data in visual models, and the new ViPO dataset enables superior performance, with the method reducing to standard DPO on high-quality data.
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SSL-R1: Self-Supervised Visual Reinforcement Post-Training for Multimodal Large Language Models
SSL-R1 reformulates visual SSL tasks into verifiable puzzles to supply rewards for RL post-training of MLLMs, yielding gains on multimodal benchmarks without external supervision.
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Building a Precise Video Language with Human-AI Oversight
CHAI framework pairs AI pre-captions with expert human critiques to produce precise video descriptions, enabling open models to outperform closed ones like Gemini-3.1-Pro and improve fine-grained control in video generation models.
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DR-MMSearchAgent: Deepening Reasoning in Multimodal Search Agents
DR-MMSearchAgent derives batch-wide trajectory advantages and uses differentiated Gaussian rewards to prevent premature collapse in multimodal agents, outperforming MMSearch-R1 by 8.4% on FVQA-test.
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SynAgent: Generalizable Cooperative Humanoid Manipulation via Solo-to-Cooperative Agent Synergy
SynAgent enables generalizable cooperative humanoid manipulation by transferring skills from solo human-object interactions to multi-agent scenarios via interaction-preserving retargeting, single-agent pretraining with multi-agent PPO, and a conditional VAE generative policy.
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S2H-DPO: Hardness-Aware Preference Optimization for Vision-Language Models
S2H-DPO generates hierarchical prompt-driven preference pairs to improve multi-image reasoning in VLMs while keeping single-image performance intact.
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Mitigating Multimodal Hallucination via Phase-wise Self-reward
PSRD mitigates visual hallucinations in LVLMs via phase-wise self-reward decoding, cutting rates by 50% on LLaVA-1.5-7B and outperforming prior methods on five benchmarks.
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Re$^2$MoGen: Open-Vocabulary Motion Generation via LLM Reasoning and Physics-Aware Refinement
Re²MoGen generates open-vocabulary motions via MCTS-enhanced LLM keyframe planning, pose-prior optimization with dynamic temporal matching fine-tuning, and physics-aware RL post-training, claiming SOTA performance.
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HO-Flow: Generalizable Hand-Object Interaction Generation with Latent Flow Matching
HO-Flow synthesizes realistic hand-object motions from text and canonical 3D objects via an interaction-aware VAE and masked flow matching, reporting SOTA physical plausibility and diversity on GRAB, OakInk, and DexYCB.
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PhyMix: Towards Physically Consistent Single-Image 3D Indoor Scene Generation with Implicit--Explicit Optimization
PhyMix unifies a new multi-aspect physics evaluator with implicit policy optimization and explicit test-time correction to produce single-image 3D indoor scenes that are both visually faithful and physically plausible.
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VL-Calibration: Decoupled Confidence Calibration for Large Vision-Language Models Reasoning
VL-Calibration is a reinforcement learning method that separates visual and reasoning confidence in LVLMs via intrinsic visual certainty estimation to improve calibration and accuracy.
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Region-Constrained Group Relative Policy Optimization for Flow-Based Image Editing
RC-GRPO-Editing constrains GRPO exploration to editing regions via localized noise and attention rewards, improving instruction adherence and non-target preservation in flow-based image editing.
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AnomalyAgent: Agentic Industrial Anomaly Synthesis via Tool-Augmented Reinforcement Learning
AnomalyAgent uses tool-augmented reinforcement learning with self-reflection to generate realistic industrial anomalies, achieving better metrics than zero-shot methods on MVTec-AD.
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LPM 1.0: Video-based Character Performance Model
LPM 1.0 generates infinite-length, identity-stable, real-time audio-visual conversational performances for single characters using a distilled causal diffusion transformer and a new benchmark.
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Walk the Talk: Bridging the Reasoning-Action Gap for Thinking with Images via Multimodal Agentic Policy Optimization
MAPO improves multimodal chain-of-thought reasoning by requiring explicit textual descriptions of visual tool results and using a novel advantage estimator that combines semantic alignment with task rewards.